FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
Creatine supplementation is safe, beneficial throughout the lifespan, and should not be restricted
Stuart, FL, USA, February 12, 2025: Researchers who have investigated the role of creatine supplementation on health and performance and the International Society of Sports Nutrition, have become increasingly concerned about reports that government agencies are attempting to restrict the sale of dietary supplements, including dietary supplements containing creatine, to children and adolescents. Creatine is a naturally occurring compound found in every cell in the human body that plays a critical role in cellular metabolism. The daily turnover of creatine is about 2 – 4 grams/day, depending on muscle mass and physical activity levels [1,2]. About half of the daily need for creatine is synthesized in the body from amino acids (arginine, glycine, methionine) and stored as free creatine or phosphocreatine in muscle, brain, heart, and other tissues [1]. The remaining daily need to maintain normal cell and tissue levels of creatine primarily comes from consuming meat and fish. For example, one pound (16 oz.) of red meat and fish contains about 1 – 2 grams of creatine. In the cells, creatine changes into phosphocreatine, a compound vital in maintaining cellular energy availability, particularly during metabolically stressful conditions like intense exercise, periods of injury or illness, and some metabolic diseases with applications for diverse populations across a wide age range.
Creatine is essential to promote normal energy metabolism and healthy growth and maturation in children and adolescents. Low dietary creatine intake has been associated with slower growth, less muscle mass, and higher body fat in children and adolescents. Adolescents have been reported to consume lower than recommended amounts of creatine in the diet. Despite common misconceptions, creatine has a well-supported safety profile and has been repeatedly shown to be safe, even with long-term supplementation [3,4]. Additionally, there is no evidence that children and adolescents purchasing and taking creatine-containing supplements cause adverse health effects and/or increase the likelihood of eating disorders or use of performance-enhancing drugs. Conversely, individuals who take creatine are interested in improving health, exercise performance, gaining muscle mass, and improving their physique. Since meat and fish are expensive and high-calorie sources of creatine, dietary supplementation of creatine monohydrate or supplements and foods fortified with creatine monohydrate are a cost-effective way to ensure that children and adolescents obtain enough creatine in their diet to promote healthy growth and maturation. Creatine supplementation has also been shown to be safe and have clinically meaningful benefits in pediatric disorders, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and disorders of creatine metabolism.
Legislation restricting the sale of creatine-containing products to children and adolescents is not based on scientific evidence, which strongly supports the importance of creatine in the diet and its safety as a supplement. Moreover, creatine supplementation is not associated with eating disorders [5], and any claim suggesting the contrary is not rooted in scientific evidence. These false claims and reckless speculation regarding the dangers of creatine supplementation may discourage the use of creatine by minors, parents of minors, and healthcare professionals from recommending creatine supplementation, a nutrient that offers a plethora of health and performance-related benefits for all populations. This may further reduce the availability of creatine in children’s and adolescents’ diets, impairing growth and maturation and negatively impacting the development of a healthy body composition. Lobbying groups and legislatures should base laws on the available science, not speculation, unfounded hypotheses, or politics. We provide the following scientific facts about creatine to help those proposing legislative efforts to limit the availability of creatine in children and adolescents make more informed legislation.
Creatine Facts
- Creatine is a naturally occurring compound that is a primary constituent of phosphocreatine stored in cells and is needed to provide cellular energy.
- The daily need for creatine is about 2 – 4 grams/day, depending on muscle mass and physical activity levels. About half of the daily need for creatine is synthesized in the body from the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine. The remainder must be obtained from the diet and/or dietary supplements.
- The best sources of creatine in the diet are meat and fish, which contain about 1 – 2 grams of creatine per pound. Since meat and fish are expensive (about $4.00 to $18.00 USD per pound) and contain large amounts of protein and fat (i.e., about 450 to 1,400 kcals/pound), dietary supplementation of creatine monohydrate (about $0.03 – $0.05 USD per gram) is a more cost-effective way to ensure individuals obtain enough creatine in their diet to meet daily needs [1].
- Creatine supplementation can also be an effective dietary strategy for vegans or vegetarians who often do not consume enough creatine in their diet [6].
- Analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database revealed that 4,291 boys and girls aged 2 – 19 years [7] consumed an average of 1 gram/day of creatine in their diets, and higher dietary intake of creatine (> 1.5 grams/day) was associated with greater height and weight compared to those consuming diets lower in creatine. Dietary creatine intake was also positively correlated with lean mass and bone mineral content while negatively correlating with fat mass and body fat percentage in 1,273 children and adolescents between the ages of 8 and 19 years [8]. These findings indicate that the dietary availability of creatine in children and adolescents may positively affect growth, maturation, and body composition. Yet, in recent years, younger populations have been reported to have decreased dietary creatine intake [9], underscoring the need for children and adolescents to consume more creatine in their diets.
- The adequate intake (AI) for creatine is 7 mg/day for infants aged 0–6 months who are exclusively breastfed and 8.4 mg/day for infants aged 7– 12 months [10].
- The NHANES database also revealed that lower dietary creatine intake (i.e., < 0.95 grams/day) was associated with poorer cognitive function test performance among 1,340 adults >60 years compared to those consuming diets with less than 0.95 grams per day [11]. Additionally, analysis of dietary creatine intake among 1,500 adults > 65 years revealed that 70% of this cohort consumed less than recommended amounts of creatine in their diets (< 0.95 grams per day), and low dietary creatine intake was associated with a greater risk of angina pectoris and liver conditions compared to those consuming >0 grams per day of dietary creatine [12]. These findings highlight the need for older individuals to increase dietary intake of creatine.
- High-quality creatine monohydrate is Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration [13] and is considered safe for human consumption in dietary supplements in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, South Korea, Japan, and China. Efforts are underway to fortify creatine in food and to position it as a conditionally essential nutrient.
- Over 680 peer-reviewed clinical trials have been conducted on creatine supplementation (95% as creatine monohydrate) since the 1970s, involving over 12,800 study participants administered creatine supplements in dosages up to 30 grams per day for 14 years in populations ranging from infants to very elderly individuals in both healthy and clinical populations. No clinical adverse events were reported in any clinical trial study, and the minor side effects reported were infrequent and not significantly different from over 13,500 participants consuming placebos in these studies. This includes a comparison of studies conducted on children and adolescents (< 18 years), young adults (19 – 45 years), middle-aged adults (46 – 65 years), and older adults (>65 years). Moreover, an analysis of over 28.4 million adverse event reports in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe, using SIDER 4.1 over the last 50 years, reveals that creatine has rarely been mentioned (about 0.0007%) despite billions of doses taken worldwide over the past 30 years. While adverse event reports do not imply causality, the lack of reports worldwide supports findings from clinical trials that creatine is safe for individuals of all ages.
- Creatine monohydrate supplementation (e.g., 0.3 grams/kg/day for 5 – 7 days and 0.05 to 0.15 grams/kg/day thereafter) is the most effective nutritional strategy to increase and maintain tissue creatine content [1]. Many studies indicate that creatine monohydrate supplementation increases gains in strength, high-intensity exercise performance, and muscle mass during resistance-exercise training [4,14]. It is considered the most effective nutritional strategy for individuals wanting to maintain and increase strength [4]. Creatine supplementation has also been reported to reduce the risk of injury, including the severity of concussion and traumatic brain injury [2]. Restricting the availability of creatine to children and adolescents may put them at risk for injury or compromise recovery following injury or disease management for neurocognitive disorders.
- Emerging evidence indicates that creatine monohydrate supplementation possesses a number of health benefits during pregnancy and infancy [15], for children and adolescents [16], for women [17], for adults involved in exercise training [4], and for older populations [18]. Additionally, there is evidence that creatine monohydrate supplementation enhances immunity [19] and can promote heart [20], vascular [21], and brain health [22]. Therapeutic benefits have been reported in the management of diabetes [23], sarcopenia [24-27], osteoporosis [25,28], patients with neuromuscular diseases [29], and rehabilitation [3,24,30-36]. Furthermore, data shows that creatine slows the progression of some forms of cancer [37,38] and may have therapeutic benefit in helping cancer patients maintain muscle mass [39] and prevent body fat accumulation during maintenance chemotherapy that includes corticosteroids [40]. For this reason, it is recommended that all individuals consume 2 – 3 grams per day of creatine to promote general health [2,4,41].
- Several studies, particularly in older populations, have shown that consuming diets higher in creatine (<0.95 grams/day) is associated with better cognition [6] and that creatine supplementation may improve cognitive function [42-45].
- No evidence is available to demonstrate that consuming creatine monohydrate increases the prevalence of eating disorders or adversely affects individuals being treated for psychiatric conditions [5]. Conversely, analysis of the NHANES database among 22,692 adults indicates that low dietary creatine intake is associated with a greater incidence of depression [45], which is often related to eating disorders and/or poor body image perceptions [46]. Furthermore, creatine supplementation has been suggested as a potential nutritional adjunctive strategy to help manage depression and reduce suicidal ideations in individuals unresponsive to some psychiatric medications [47].
- Given all the known benefits and favorable safety profile of creatine supplementation reported in the scientific and medical literature, we believe that government legislatures and sports organizations that restrict and/or discourage the use of creatine may be placing athletes at greater risk—particularly in contact sports where there is a risk of head trauma and/or neurological injury, thereby opening themselves up to legal liability. This includes children and adolescent athletes participating in sports that expose them to a risk of head and/or spinal cord injury. Imposing unnecessary restrictions on creatine may reduce the amount of creatine in the diets of children and adolescents, mislead public perception about the safety of creatine supplementation, and discourage healthcare professionals from recommending creatine supplementation to their patients, negatively impacting their health and quality of life. Moreover, proposing to restrict the sale of a healthy nutrient like creatine to children and adolescents while they can readily purchase high-fat and high-calorie foods, high-calorie caffeinated beverages, and engage in unhealthy behaviors without restrictions reinforces poor health and eating behaviors while simultaneously limiting access to a conditionally essential nutrient that offers numerous health benefits.
In summary, the robust body of evidence supports the safety and multifaceted benefits of creatine supplementation across all age groups. We urge lobbyists, policymakers, and health agencies to consult with leading creatine scientists and the International Society of Sports Nutrition and to consider the full spectrum of scientific data before implementing restrictions that would have adverse public health and performance implications.
The following ISSN members, international creatine researchers, and scholars support this statement.
Richard B. Kreider, PhD, FACSM, FISSN, FACN, FNAK
Professor and Director, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab
Department of Kinesiology and Sports ManagementDoctoral Program Faculty, Department of Nutrition
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843, USA
[email protected]
Andrew R. Jagim, PhD, CSCS*D, CISSN
Director of Sports Medicine Research
Mayo Clinic Health System
La Crosse, WI, 54601 USA
[email protected]
Jose Antonio PhD, FISSN, FNSCA
Exercise and Sport Science
Nova Southeastern University
Davie, FL, 33328 USA
[email protected]
Michael J. Ormsbee, PhD, FACSM, FISSN, FNAK, CISSN, CSCS*D
Professor and Director
Institute of Sports Sciences & Medicine
Florida State University
Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA
[email protected]
Chad M. Kerksick, PhD, FACSM, FNSCA, FISSN, CISSN, CSCS*D
Assistant Dean & Professor
Director, Exercise and Performance Nutrition Laboratory
Lindenwood University
St. Charles, MO 63301 USA
[email protected]
Douglas S. Kalman PhD, RD, CCRC, FACN, FISSN
Clinical Associate Professor – Nutrition
Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine
Nova Southeastern University
Davie, FL, 33328 USA
[email protected]
Diego A. Bonilla, ISAK 3
Scientific Director & Researcher
DBSS – Dynamical Business & Science Society
NUTRAL Research Group, Universidad CES
Medellin 110911, COLOMBIA
[email protected]
Jeffrey R. Stout, PhD, FNAK, FNSCA, FACSM, FISSN
Professor & School Director
School of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences
College of Health Professions and Sciences
University of Central Florida, USA
[email protected]
Maurizio Balestrino, MD
Associate Professor of Neurology
Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation
Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal-Child Sciences (DINOGMI)
University of Genoa, ITALY
[email protected]
Scott C. Forbes, PhD, CSEP-CEP, FISSN
Associate Professor
Department of Physical Education Studies
Faculty of Education
Brandon University, CANADA
[email protected]
Susan M. Kleiner, PhD, RD, CNS-E, FACN, FISSN
Owner/Founder
High Performance Nutrition LLC
Mercer Island, WA, USA
[email protected]
Ann Frost Brown, PhD, CISSN
Associate Professor & Associate Dean
Department of Movement Sciences
College of Education, Health & Human Sciences
University of Idaho, USA
[email protected]
Sergej M. Ostojic, MD, PhD
Professor
Department of Nutrition and Public Health
University of Agder, NORWAY
[email protected]
Drew E. Gonzalez, PhD, CISSN, CSCS*D, TSAC-F*D, SCCC
Research Associate
Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab
Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843, USA
[email protected]
Bill I. Campbell, PhD CSCS, FISSN
Professor of Exercise Science
University of South Florida
Tampa, FL 33620, USA
[email protected]
Eric S. Rawson, PhD CSCS, FACM
Professor
Health, Nutrition, and Exercise Science
Messiah University
Mechanicsburg, PA 17055, USA
[email protected]
Tim N. Ziegenfuss, PhD, CSCS, FISSN
CEO – The Center for Applied Health Sciences
6570 Seville Dr
Canfield, OH 44406, USA
[email protected]
Mark A. Tarnopolsky, MD, PhD, FRCP(C)
Professor of Pediatrics
McMaster Children’s Hospital
Hamilton, Ontario, CANADA
[email protected]
Darren G. Candow, PhD, CSEP-CEP, FISSN
Professor, Faculty of Kinesiology and Health Studies
University of Regina
Regina, SK, CANADA
S4S 0A2
[email protected]
Abbie E. Smith-Ryan, PhD, FACSM, FNSCA, FISSN
Professor & Associate Chair for Research
Department of Exercise & Sport Science/Nutrition
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
[email protected]
Dr Stacey Ellery, BBioMedSc (Hons), PhD
NHMRC Emerging Leader Fellow (EL2)
Head Bioenergetics in Reproduction Group
The Ritchie Centre
Hudson Institute of Medical Research
Monash University
27 – 31 Wright Street, Clayton
Victoria, AUSTRALIA 3800
[email protected]
Ralf Jäger, PhD, MBA, FISSN
Increnovo LLC
730 E Carlisle Ave
Whitefish Bay, WI 53217, USA
[email protected]
Robert Wildman PhD RD LD CISSN
Research Associate, Dept of Human Nutrition
Kansas State University
Manhattan, KS, USA
Founder, International Protein Board
[email protected]
Craig Sale, PhD, FACSM
Professor of Human Physiology and Nutrition
Institute of Sport
Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UNITED KINGDOM
[email protected]
Rick Collins, Esq., FISSN, NSCA-CSCS
Collins Gann McCloskey & Barry PLLC
Mineola, NY, 11501, USA
[email protected]
Michael D. Roberts, PhD
Auburn University Endowed Alumni Professor
School of Kinesiology
Auburn University
Auburn, AL 36849, USA
[email protected]
Vargas-Molina Salvador, PhD
Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Medicine
PAIDI 132 Exercise Physiology
Research Division, Dynamical Business and Science Society DBSS International
Málaga, SPAIN
[email protected]
Susan J Hewlings PhD, RD
Sr Vice President of Scientific Affairs Radicle Science
Co-Founder Substantiation Sciences, LLC
Cudjoe Key, FL, USA
[email protected]
Lem W. Taylor, PhD, FACSM, FISSN
Human Performance Lab
School of Health Professions
University of Mary Hardin-Baylor
Belton, TX 76513, USA
[email protected]
Prof. Dr. Hamilton Roschel, PhD, RD
Associate Professor – University of Sao Paulo
Scientific/Executive Director – Center of Lifestyle Medicine
Head – Applied Physiology & Nutrition Research Group
University of Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo, BRAZIL
[email protected]
Wagner Domingues, PhD, RD
Associate Professor
Research Group on Physical Activity and Rehabilitation for Special Groups
Graduate Program in Operational Human Performance
Air Force University
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, BRAZIL
[email protected]
Jeff Volek, PhD
Professor
Department of Human Sciences | Kinesiology Program
The Ohio State University
Columbus, OH USA
[email protected]
Bruno Gualano, PhD
Associate Professor
Chair – Center of Lifestyle Medicine
School of Medicine
University of Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo, BRAZIL
[email protected]
Elfego Galvan, PhD, RD
Medical Student (MS-III)
A.T. Still University
School of Osteopathic Medicine – Arizona
Mesa, AZ 85206, USA
[email protected]
Philip D. Chilibeck, PhD, CSEP-CEP
Professor, College of Kinesiology
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon SK, CANADA
S7K 2X2
[email protected]
Jay R. Hoffman, PhD
Professor and Director
Sport Science Program
School of Health Science
Ariel University
Ariel, ISRAEL
[email protected]
Nicholas D. Barringer, Ph.D., RDN, CSSD, CSCS
Chief Academic Officer and Dean Graduate Studies
Lionel University
Carpinteria, California
[email protected]
Conflicts of Interest: R.B.K. has conducted industry-sponsored research on creatine, received financial support for presenting at conferences about creatine, and has served as an expert witness throughout his career. Additionally, he serves as Chair of the Scientific Advisory Board for AlzChem (a company that makes creatine monohydrate), is a co-founder of the non-profit International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN), and a member of the scientific advisory boards for Oath Nutrition and Trace Minerals. A.R.J. has consulted with and received external funding from companies selling certain dietary ingredients and has received remuneration from companies for delivering scientific conference presentations. A.R.J. also writes for online and other media outlets on topics related to exercise and nutrition. In addition, A.R.J. serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for AlzChem. JA is the CEO and co-founder of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN), an academic non-profit (501c3) sponsored by companies that manufacture, market, and sell dietary supplements. He is also a scientific advisor to brands including Bear Balanced®, Create®, Enhanced Games®, and Liquid Youth®. C.M.K.. has consulted with and received external funding from companies that sell certain dietary ingredients and has received remuneration from companies for delivering scientific presentations at conferences and consulting services. C.M.K. also writes for online and other media outlets on topics related to exercise and nutrition. In addition, C.M.K. serves as a Scientific Advisor for NNB Nutrition, Oath Nutrition, and the Scientific Advisory Board for AlzChem. D.A.B. serves as the Scientific and Managing Director of KreaFood, an R&D&I project, and is a member of the “Creatine for Health” scientific advisory board for Alzchem Group AG. Additionally, he has served as a scientific consultant for dietary supplement brands in Europe and Colombia, researched nutritional supplements funded by academic institutions, and received honoraria for presenting on nutritional supplements at international conferences and private courses. D.S.K. declares that over his career he has worked for Contract Research Organizations and others who have received research grants/contacts to execute studies for the pharmaceutical, foods, beverages, dietary supplement and medical devices. DSK co-directs a consultancy, Substantiation Sciences, consulting for the foods, beverages, dietary supplement consumer packaged goods and other regulated industries. DSK has also served as an Expert Witness for cases related to the pharmaceutical and dietary supplement industries. DSK is a co-founder of the non-profit the International Society of Sports Nutrition. DSK has been remunerated for presentations by companies within the pharmaceutical, foods/beverages and dietary supplement industries. DSK serves as an unpaid member of the Scientific Advisory Committee for AlzChem. Over the past 30 years, JRS has received grants to investigate the efficacy and safety of dietary supplements, served as a paid consultant for the industry, and received honoraria for speaking at conferences and writing lay articles about sports nutrition ingredients and topics. MB is a founding member of NovaNeuro Srl, an academic spinoff that creates and markets creatine-based supplements. S.C.F. is a scientific advisor for Bear Balanced® and has received creatine supplements from Alzchem for research. S.M.K. is a member of the “Creatine for Health” scientific advisory board for Alzchem Group AG. Additionally, she has authored numerous books and articles that reference creatine and has served as a scientific consultant for brands in the USA that have developed creatine-containing products. S.M.O. is a member of the Scientific Advisory Board on Creatine in Health and Medicine (AlzChem LLC). S.M.O. co-owns patent “Supplements Based on Liquid Creatine” at the European Patent Office (WO2019150323 A1) and patent application “Composition Comprising Creatine for Use in Telomere Lengthening” at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (# 63/608,850). S.M.O. has received research support related to creatine during the past 36 months from the Serbian Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation; Provincial Secretariat for Higher Education and Scientific Research; AlzChem GmbH; Kaneka Nutrients; ThermoLife International; and Vireo Systems Inc. S.M.O. does not own stocks and shares in any organization. BIC has received grants and contracts to research dietary supplements; has served as a paid consultant for industry; has received honoraria for speaking at conferences and writing lay articles about sports nutrition ingredients and topics; is a member of the International Protein Board that disseminates knowledge on protein and protein products; has served as an expert witness on behalf of the plaintiff and defense in cases involving dietary supplements; and receives compensation for writing and providing educational services related to exercise and nutrition-related topics. E.S.R. has conducted industry-sponsored research involving creatine supplementation and has received creatine supplement donations for scientific studies and travel support for conference presentations involving creatine supplementation. In addition, E.S.R. serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for Alzchem and as an expert witness/consultant in legal cases involving creatine supplementation. T.N.Z. has no conflict regarding financial or business interests related to creatine sales. T.N.Z. has received grants and contracts to conduct research on dietary supplements; has served as a paid consultant for industry; has received honoraria for speaking at conferences and writing lay articles about sports nutrition ingredients; receives royalties from the sale of several sports nutrition products (but not creatine products); and has served as an expert witness on behalf of the plaintiff and defense in cases involving dietary supplements. T.N.Z. is also a co-inventor on multiple patent applications within the field of dietary supplements, applied nutrition, and bioactive compounds. M.A.T. is the CEO of Exerkine Corporation/Stayabove Nutrition, and the company sells two products that contain creatine monohydrate. M.A.T. has served on Advisory Boards for Sanofi-Genzyme and Amicus Therapeutics (unrelated to creatine). M.A.T. is a co-inventor on multiple patent applications within the fields of dietary supplements and medical nutrition. D.G.C. has conducted industry-sponsored research involving creatine supplementation and received creatine donations for scientific studies and travel support for presentations involving creatine supplementation at scientific conferences. In addition, D.G.C. serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for Alzchem and Create (companies that manufacture creatine products) and as an expert witness/consultant in legal cases involving creatine supplementation. A.S.R has conducted research involving creatine supplementation and received creatine donations for scientific studies, as well as travel support for scientific conferences for creatine presentations. In addition, A.S.R. serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for Alzchem and Create (companies that manufacture creatine products). S.J.E. serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for Alzchem. She has received creatine donations for scientific studies and travel support for presentations involving creatine metabolism at scientific conferences. R.J. has conducted industry-sponsored research on creatine, received financial support for presenting on creatine at industry-sponsored scientific conferences, and has served as an expert witness on cases related to creatine. M.J.O. is a member of the Scientific Advisory Board on Creatine in Health and Medicine (AlzChem LLC) and has received grant funding for research on dietary supplements from companies that manufacture creatine supplements. C.S. has received grants to investigate the efficacy and safety of dietary supplements and received honoraria for speaking at conferences and other events and writing lay articles about sports nutrition ingredients and topics. R.C. has consulted with and represented companies that sell dietary supplements and serves in non-paying positions on the boards of supplement trade associations. M.D.R. performs contracted studies with nutritional supplement companies and acts as a paid consultant for select industry entities. M.D.R. does not receive royalties and/or benefits from the sales of creatine products. H.R. has received research grants and supplement donations for scientific studies from AlzChem. B.G. has received research grants, creatine donations for scientific studies, travel support for participation in scientific conferences (including the ISSN), and an honorarium for speaking at lectures from AlzChem. In addition, B.G. serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for Alzchem. S. H., L.T., W.D., J.V., E.G., P.D.C., J.H., and N.D.B. report no conflicts of interest.
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